Introduction Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a common problem in women at all stages of life, and assume greater importance particularly during pregnancy. UTIs can be divided into two types - lower tract infections and upper tract infections (Figure 1). Upper tract infections: These involve the ureters and kidneys, leading to pyelonephritis. Upper urinary tract infections usually occur because bacteria travel up from the bladder into the kidney. Sometimes, they occur when bacteria travel from other areas of the body through the bloodstream and settle in the kidney. Lower tract infections: These infections involve the bladder (cystitis) or urethra (urethritis). Bacteria normally found in the intestine are the main cause of lower urinary tract infections. These bacteria spread from the anus to the urethra and bladder, where they grow, invade the tissue and cause infection. Women are anatomically predisposed to UTIs because of their shorter urethra and proximity of the…
Introduction Adequate maternal micronutrient status is especially critical during pregnancy and lactation. This is because pregnancy is a period of increased metabolic demands, involving changes in the woman's physiology and the requirements of a growing fetus. During this time, inadequate stores or intake of vitamins or minerals, referred to collectively as micronutrients, can have adverse effects on both the mother and the fetus. The maternal effects are anemia, hypertension, complications of labor and even death, while the fetal effects include stillbirth, pre-term delivery, intrauterine growth retardation, congenital malformations, reduced immunocompetence and abnormal organ development.1 Causes of micronutrient deficiency Poor quality diet The main cause of multiple micronutrient deficiencies is a poor quality diet, often due to an inadequate intake of animal source foods (meat and/or milk), especially in developing countries. Increased demand In pregnancy and/or lactation, the requirements of most nutrients are higher, increasing the risk of inadequate intake. Gene…
